Category Archives for "Accounting"

chart of accounts
Mar 21

Understanding the Chart of Accounts: A Fundamental Guide

By Charles Hall | Accounting

What is a chart of accounts? If you are new to accounting, you may not know. But you need to understand this part of bookkeeping and accounting whether you use a manual system or an online one such as QuickBooks. A chart of accounts is helpful whether you are using FASB, GASB, or special purpose frameworks

Below, I explain what a chart of accounts is and how you will use it in bookkeeping and accounting. I also provide thirteen steps to developing a chart of accounts. 

What is a Chart of Accounts?

A chart of accounts (COA) is a structured list of an organization’s financial accounts used to categorize and record financial transactions. It serves as the backbone of an accounting system, providing a framework for organizing financial data in a logical manner. The COA is tailored to an organization’s needs and can vary widely in complexity.

The COA is usually hierarchical, with accounts organized in categories and subcategories. These categories include assets, liabilities, equity, revenue, and expenses. Each account within the COA is typically assigned a unique identifier, usually a numerical code (see examples below), to facilitate data entry and reporting.

chart of accounts

Example Chart of Accounts

Here’s an example of a chart of accounts:

Assets

– 1010: Cash

– 1010.1 Operating Checking

– 1010.2 Payroll Checking

– 1010.3 Special Projects Checking

– 1020: Accounts Receivable

– 1030: Inventory

– 1040: Fixed Assets

– 1040.1: Buildings

– 1040.2: Machinery

Liabilities

– 2010: Accounts Payable

– 2020: Loan Payable

– 2030: Accrued Expenses

Equity

– 3010: Owner’s Capital

– 3020: Retained Earnings

Revenue

– 4010: Sales Revenue

– 4020: Interest Income

Expenses

– 5010: Cost of Goods Sold

– 5020: Rent Expense

– 5030: Utilities Expense

– 5040: Salaries and Wages

Next, I’ll show you how to create account codes. 

Account Coding

The numbers used to identify an account (e.g., 1010 for Cash) vary from entity to entity. Account coding involves several elements, including the following:

  • Length of the code (the number of digits or characters in the account number)
  • Use of spaces, dots, or spaces
  • Hierarchical structure (using general categories and subcategories)
  • Numerical and alphanumeric (numbers and letters; e.g., 1010AA-15)

Here are examples of operating cash accounts for different companies:

Account number for operating cash

Entity

100.01

Joe’s Machine Shop

1000-01

Wonderful Coffee, Inc.

10-100-01

Jet Products Partnership

10-10-1000-01-A

Bose Industrial

C-10-10-1000-01

Johnson Farms, Inc.

As you can see, the account code for each operating cash account can vary significantly from entity to entity. So, why the differences?

Factors Affecting Account Coding

Several factors drive the account coding, including the following:

  • Laws or regulations (e.g., state law can dictate account coding for governments)
  • Industry guidelines
  • Business needs for certain information
  • Software requirements (some software packages require the use of specific account coding, such as the number of characters)

Additionally, some entities use prefixes to identify the type of asset, liability, equity, revenue, or expense. Here are examples:

Prefix

Type

10

Asset

20

Liability

30

Equity

40

Revenue

50

Expense

Using the prefixes, the cash and receivable accounts might appear as follows:

Account Number

Account

10-1000

Operating account

10-1005

Payroll account

10-1010

Capital construction account

10-1020

Accounts receivable

10-1025

Due from employees

chart of accounts

More complex entities may have longer account codes to accommodate the reporting needs of the entity. For example, a company might use prefix numbers for specific accounts, such as cash. Here’s an example with the first 10 representing assets and the second 10 representing cash.

Account Number

Account

10-10-1000

Operating account

10-10-1005

Payroll account

10-10-1010

Capital construction account

10-20-2000

Accounts receivable

 

So, why would you add these additional layers in the chart of account number? Additional account coding can make it easier to create financial statements. For example, in the preceding table, total cash can be determined by adding all accounts preceded with 10-10.

So, a company can use account coding to generate certain information, such as total cash.

Next, I’ll show you how the chart of accounts is a part of the financial statement building process. 

The Building Blocks of Financial Statements

Key building blocks in the creation of financial statements include:

  1. Chart of accounts
  2. Journal entries
  3. General ledger
  4. Trial balance
  5. Financial statement

First, let’s look at how the chart of accounts and journal entries work together

The relationship between journal entries and the chart of accounts is akin to the relationship between a script and its cast of characters. The COA serves as the cast—a structured list of all accounts where financial transactions can be recorded. Journal entries, on the other hand, are the script— the actual recording of financial transactions as they occur.

Each line in a journal entry uses an account from the COA. The account’s unique identifier (e.g., 1010.1) is used to specify where the debit or credit is to be recorded.

Account Description Debit  Credit
1010.1 Operating Checking 1,000
4010 Sales Revenue 1,000

 

Second, let’s see how the journal entries feed into the general ledger which feeds into the trial balance

The COA helps categorize transactions appropriately. For example, if a company makes a sale, it debits an asset account (like Accounts Receivable or Cash) and credits a revenue account (Sales Revenue), as defined in the COA. The company records each transaction (journal entry or accounting entry) in the general ledger account, and the general ledger totals create the trial balances.

For example, if there are ten checking account transactions in May, those are added or subtracted from the May 1 opening balance in the general ledger to arrive at the May 31 balance (e.g., $125,453 in the table below).

Third, here’s how the trial balance feeds into the financial statements

Now, the trial balance (the summary of all account balances) checking account balance reflects $125,453 at the end of May which is included in the financial statements

Accounting Sequence

So, let me summarize and say once more what the accounting sequence is.

  1. Accounting entries are made to the general ledger
  2. The general ledger feeds into the trial balance
  3. The trial balance feeds into the financial statement. 

Summarizing Accounts for Financial Statements

Here is an example of a company’s cash accounts being combined for presentation in the financial statements. 

Account Number

Account Name Balance
1010.1 Operating Checking  125,453
1010.2 Payroll Checking 55,871
1010.3 Special Projects Checking 144,120
Total Cash

$325,444

 

From here, we use the total cash balance in the balance sheet.

Financial Statements

Here are a few lines in the balance sheet:

ABC Company

Balance Sheet

12/31/20X4

 

Cash

$325,444

Account Receivable

     548,465

Inventory

  2,587,132

Current Assets

$3,461,041

 

In addition to assisting with financial statement creation, there are other advantages to using a chart of accounts. 

Four Advantages to a Chart of Accounts

  1. Consistency and Standardization: The COA provides a standardized framework for recording transactions. This ensures that everyone in the organization uses the same numbering system when making accounting entries, which is crucial for consistency and accuracy.
  2. Budgeting and Analysis: The COA allows for easier budgeting and financial analysis. Management can assess performance against budgets or historical data by reviewing entries in specific accounts (e.g., sales).
  3. Compliance and Regulation: A well-defined COA ensures that journal entries comply with regulatory requirements for financial reporting, especially in sectors like governments and nonprofits.
  4. Error Detection: A well-organized COA can help you quickly identify accounting entry errors. If an entry doesn’t align with the account type (e.g., crediting an asset account when it should be debited), it’s easier to spot. 

In light of the above, you may be wondering, “What steps should I follow to get this done?”

chart of accounts

Thirteen Steps to Set Up Your COA

Here are steps you can use to set up your COA:

  1. Understand the Business Structure: Before you start, understand the nature of the business or organization. Is it a manufacturing company, a service provider, a nonprofit, or a government entity? The type of organization will influence the accounts you need.
  2. Identify Reporting Needs: Determine the financial statements and reports the organization will need. For example, review sample city financial statements to see what is required if your entity is a city government. This will help you structure the COA to align with the financial statements.
  3. Determine the Basis of Accounting: Cash basis accounting, for example, differs from generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP requires accrual accounts such as Accounts Receivable, and the cash basis of accounting does not.
  4. Consult Regulatory Guidelines: For certain types of organizations, especially governments and nonprofits, regulatory guidelines might dictate the structure of the COA.
  5. Choose a Numbering System: Decide your account numbering system. A common approach is to use a series of numbers, often in increments of 10 or 100, to allow for future additions.
  6. Create Main Categories: List the main categories of accounts, such as Assets, Liabilities, Equity, Revenue, and Expenses.
  7. Add Subcategories: Within each main category, add subcategories. For example, Assets contain Current Assets and Noncurrent Assets.
  8. Assign Account Numbers: Assign a unique number to each account based on your numbering system.
  9. Provide Descriptions: Briefly describe each account to clarify its purpose (e.g., operating cash). This is especially useful for anyone not involved in setting up the COA.
  10. Implement in Accounting Software: Most accounting software allows you to customize your COA. Input the accounts, numbers, and descriptions into the software. Before creating your COA, ensure your accounting software allows your desired numbering system. For example, the software might limit the account number to ten digits.
  11. Test and Revise: Test the COA by recording sample transactions after initial setup. Make any necessary adjustments.
  12. Train the Team: Ensure that everyone using the COA understands how to use it correctly.
  13. Review Periodically: Business needs change, and your COA should accommodate those changes. Review the COA periodically and make updates as necessary.

Additional Chart of Account Considerations

Here are some things you need to consider as you develop your chart of accounts:

  1. Balance the number of accounts with your reporting needs. Create additional accounts only when necessary. For example, create salary sub-accounts for each department (e.g., operations salaries, logistics salaries, oversight salaries, management salaries) in a large organization, but one salary account might be sufficient in a small entity.
  2. Some industries, such as healthcare, provide sample COAs. (You’ll find healthcare COA examples on the Internet. The same is true of other industries.) Moreover, some sectors have required COAs. For instance, local governments in Georgia must follow a state-mandated COA.
  3. There are competing issues in developing account codes: Desire for short account numbers versus Desire for additional information. Short account numbers take less time to enter, but they may limit the entity’s informational abilities. The result: the company may need to export account numbers and balances to Excel and manually compute the required information. Many entities lengthen their account numbers to automatically generate information without additional steps (such as exporting to Excel). The 10-10 prefix for all cash accounts (see above) is an example.
  4. As you develop the chart of accounts, share it with all stakeholders, those that this will affect (e.g., department heads in your organization). It’s best to get negative feedback as you develop the chart of accounts, not after it is live in your accounting system. 
  5. If you are creating a new account coding system, consider all the information you need (now and in the future) and design the codes accordingly. A common problem for all entities is they outgrow their account codes; when they do, the business may need to revamp the entire account coding—not a pleasant process.

Give Some Love to COA

As I close, let me encourage you to give your chart of account decisions plenty of thought. You’ll be glad you did. If you don’t give your chart of accounts the early love it deserves, you may regret it. Creating a new accounting systems six years out, for example, would be a major headache. 

I wish you well as you create your chart of accounts. 

Finance and operating leases
Dec 11

Finance and Operating Leases: Lessees

By Charles Hall | Accounting

Most CPAs grapple with leases from the lessee’s point of view, so in this post, we’ll look at finance and operating leases from the lessee’s perspective. Under the new lease standard (ASC 842, Leases), what are the types of leases? Does the accounting vary based on the type of lease? Are lease expenses different?

First, let’s start by defining the types of leases and how to classify them.

Lease accounting

The Types of Leases

Upon the commencement date of the lease, the company should classify the lease as either a finance or an operating lease using ASC 842. (Under ASC 840, a finance lease was referred to as a capital lease.)

Finance Lease

So what is a finance lease? A lease is considered a finance lease if it meets any of the following criteria:

  1. The lease transfers ownership of the underlying asset to the lessee by the end of the lease term
  2. The lease grants the lessee an option to purchase the underlying asset that the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise
  3. The lease term is for the major part of the remaining economic life of the underlying asset (today, we use the 75% rule)
  4. The present value of the sum of the lease payments and residual value guarantee equals or exceeds substantially all of the fair value of the underlying asset (today, we use the 90% rule)
  5. The underlying asset is of such a specialized nature that it is expected to have no alternative use to the lessor at the end of the lease term

While the bright-line criteria (e.g., the lease term of 75% or more of economic life) have been removed, the basis for conclusions in the new lease standard acknowledges some old rules of thumb.  It says that one reasonable approach to determining whether the lease is for a significant portion of the asset’s life is the 75% threshold. The conclusion goes on to say that “90 percent or greater is ‘substantially all’ of the fair value of the underlying asset.” So, in effect, FASB removed the bright lines as a rule but not in principle–the conclusion says FASB “does not mandate those bright lines.”

Operating Lease

And what is an operating lease? It’s any lease that is not a financing lease.

Accounting Similarities and Differences

Both operating and finance leases result in a right-of-use asset and a lease liability. The subsequent accounting for the two types of leases is quite different.

Finance Lease Accounting

The accounting for a finance lease–using ASC 842–is similar to capital lease accounting under ASC 840.

When a company enters a finance lease, it records the right-of-use asset and the lease liability. The amortization of the right-of-use asset will be straight-line, and the amortization of the liability will be accounted for using the effective interest method. Consequently, lease expenses are front-loaded (i.e., expenses will decline throughout the lease term). The amortization and interest expenses will be presented separately on the income statement.

As we are about to see, operating lease accounting is significantly different, particularly with regard to accounting for the lease expense and the amortization of the right-of-use asset.

Operating Lease Accounting

The primary change in lease accounting lies in the operating lease area. Under ASC 842, a company will book a right-of-use asset and a lease liability for all operating leases greater than twelve months in length (an election has to be made to exclude leases of twelve months or less). Under ASC 840, no asset or liability was recorded.

Will the operating lease expense be any different than it has been? No. But the recording and amortization of the right-of-use asset and the lease liability are new.

The Initial Operating Lease Entries

Let’s say a company has a five-year operating lease for $1,000 per month and will pay $60,000 over the life of the lease. How do we account for this lease? First, the company records the right-of-use asset and the lease liability by discounting the present value of the payments using the effective interest method.  In this example, the present value might be $54,000. As the right-of-use asset and lease liability are amortized, the company will (each month) debit rent expense for $1,000—the amount the company is paying. So the expense amount is the same as it was under ASC 840.

Amortizing the Right-of-Use Asset and the Lease Liability

How does the company amortize the right-of-use asset and the lease liability? The lease liability is amortized using the effective interest method, and the interest expense is a component of the rent expense. What’s the remainder of the $1,000? The amortization of the right-of-use asset. The $1,000 rent expense comprises two parts: (1) the interest expense for the month and (2) the right-of-use amortization amount, which is a plug to make the entry balance. Even though the rent expense is made up of these two components, it appears on the income statement as one line: rent expense (unlike the finance lease, which reflects interest expense and amortization expense separately).

Potential Impairments

Due to the straight-line lease expense calculation mechanics, the right-of-use asset amortization expense is back-loaded (i.e., the amortization expense component is less in the early part of the lease). One potential consequence of this slower amortization is that the right-of-use asset is more likely be impaired (at least as compared to a financing lease). The impairment rules do apply to the right-of-use asset.

Here’s a video showing you the journal entries for financing and operating leases.

YouTube player

Your Thoughts

So, what do you think of the new lease accounting? Is it better? Worse?

You can see my first two lease posts here:

Post 1: How to Understand the New Lease Accounting Standard

Post 2: Get Ready for Changes in Leases and the Leasing Industry

lease accounting
Dec 09

How to Understand the New Lease Accounting Standard

By Charles Hall | Accounting

Do you need help in understanding the new lease accounting standard? This article provides you with a basic understanding of the new guidance.

The existing lease guidance (FAS 13; codified as ASC 840) came out in 1976. In that standard, FASB defines capital leases with criteria such as minimum lease payments of at least 90% of fair market value or lease periods of at least 75% of the economic life of the asset. Given the bright-line criteria, lessees have asked lessors to construct leases so that they are considered operating and not capital. Why?

Most lessees don’t desire to reflect capital lease liabilities on their balance sheets. So for forty years, lessees have controlled assets with a lease agreement and not recorded them on their balance sheets—sometimes called “off-balance-sheet financing.”

lease accounting

The Problem: Tailored Leases

As an example under present lease standards, a company leases a building with an economic life of 40 years and desires a lease term of 28 years. Why? Well, 75% of 40 years is 30. Since the lease is less than 30 years, it is an operating lease—one not capitalized, one not recorded on the balance sheet.

What happens if the lease term is 30 years? Then it is a capital lease, and the company records the building and the related debt on the balance sheet. The lessee is fine with the recording of the asset (the building) but wants to keep the debt off the books. However, if a capital lease criterion is triggered, the asset and the debt are recorded on the balance sheet.

The New Trigger: Is This a Contract?

Under existing lease accounting rules, bright-line criteria are used to make the capitalization decision, for example, lease terms of 75% or more of the economic life or lease payments of 90% or more of the fair market value.

But the bright-line criteria is being replaced with a question: Is it a contract? If the lease is a contract, it goes on the balance sheet. (I am speaking generally here. There are other requirements such as the lessee must control the asset and reap the benefits of the arrangement.) If it is not a contract, it does not go on the balance sheet.

Result: Most operating leases will now be recorded on the balance sheet at the inception of the lease.

Recording Leases Under the New Lease Accounting Standard

So what is the accounting entry to record leases under the new standard?

A right-of-use asset (ROU) is recorded on the balance sheet at the amount of the lease liability (there can be some adjustments to the ROU as it is initially recorded, so I am speaking generally here). Also, a lease liability is concurrently recorded.

What’s the amount of the lease liability? It is the present value of the lease payments (including options that are reasonably certain). So, what is a right-of-use asset? It is an intangible that represents the lessee’s right to use the underlying asset. (The right-of-use asset will be amortized over the life of the lease.)

Is there any theory that supports this type of accounting? Yes, in FASB’s conceptual statements.

Congruence with FASB Conceptual Statement

FASB Concept Statement 6 says that assets are probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by an entity as a result of past transactions or events. Liabilities are probable future sacrifices of economic benefits arising from present obligations to transfer assets or provide services to other entities in the future as a result of past transactions or events.

Under the new lease standard, the right-of-use asset and the lease liability are congruent with the definitions in Concept Statement 6. So, if a company leases a truck for three years and the economic life of the vehicle is seven years, it has obtained “probable future economic benefits…as a result of past transactions.” And the company has “probable future sacrifices of economic benefits” arising from the lease obligation. Therefore, the lease should be booked on the balance sheet.

YouTube player

Effective Dates for New Lease Standard

ASC 842 (ASU 2016-02), Leases, replaces ASC 840, Leases.

The effective dates for 842 are as follows:

For public entities, the standard is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2018.

ASC 842 is effective for the annual reporting periods of private companies and nonprofit organizations beginning after December 15, 2021.

Early implementation is permissible for all entities.

More Information

This post is the first in a series concerning the new lease standard. See my other posts here:

If you’re an auditor, check out my post Auditing Debt: The Why and How Guide.

Lease Standard
Dec 05

Changes in Leases and the Leasing Industry

By Charles Hall | Accounting

The Leasing Industry will Change

In my last lease post, we saw that bright-line criteria (e.g., lease terms of 75% or more of economic life and minimum lease payments of 90% or more of fair market value) are eliminated with ASU 2016-02. Consequently, almost all leases—including operating leases—will create lease liabilities. This accounting change will alter the leasing industry.

Lease Standard

Picture from AdobeStock.com

Lessees have historically paid high lease interest rates to obtain operating lease treatment (no lease debt is recorded). Now—with the new lease standard—those same operating leases will generate lease liabilities. So why would the lessee pay the higher interest rate? There is nothing to be gained. I think Lessees will begin to borrow money from banks (at a lower rate). And they will buy the formerly leased asset, or they will demand lower interest rates from the lessor. Lessees, I think, will obtain better interest rates.

The Scope of the Lease Standard

To what does the lease standard apply? It applies to leases of property, plant, and equipment (identified asset) based on a contract that conveys control to the lessee for a period of time in exchange for consideration. The period may be described in relation to the amount of usage (e.g., units produced). Also, the identified asset must be physically distinct (e.g., a floor of a building).

Control over the use of the leased asset means the customer has both:

  1. The right to obtain substantially all of the economic benefits from the use of the identified asset
  2. The right to direct the use of the asset

To what does the standard not apply?

The lease standard does not apply to the following:

  1. Leases of intangible assets, including licenses of internal-use software
  2. Leases to explore for or use minerals, oil, natural gas, and similar resources
  3. Leases of biological assets
  4. Leases of inventory
  5. Leases of assets under construction

Operating or Finance Lease

Upon the commencement date of the lease, the company should classify the lease as either a finance or an operating lease. Under present lease standards, a finance lease is referred to as a capital lease.

So what is a finance lease? A lease is considered a finance lease if it meets any of the following criteria:

  1. The lease transfers ownership of the underlying asset to the lessee by the end of the lease term
  2. The lease grants the lessee an option to purchase the underlying asset that the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise
  3. The lease term is for the major part of the remaining economic life of the underlying asset (today we use the 75% rule)
  4. The present value of the sum of the lease payments and residual value guarantee equals or exceeds substantially all of the fair value of the underlying asset (today we use the 90% rule)
  5. The underlying asset is of such a specialized nature that it is expected to have no alternative use to the lessor at the end of the lease term

And what is an operating lease? It’s any lease that is not a financing lease.

Both operating and finance leases result in a right-of-use asset and a lease liability. The subsequent accounting for the two types of leases will be different (a topic we’ll cover in my next lease post).

Are there any leases that will not result in a right-of-use asset and a lease liability? Yes, those with terms of twelve months or less.

Lease Terms of Less Than 12 Months

Companies do have the option to not capitalize a lease of 12 months or less. To do so, the company must make an accounting policy election (by class of the underlying leased asset). Companies that use the election will recognize lease expenses on a straight-line basis, and no right of use asset or lease liability will be recorded. If, however, the terms of the short-term lease change, the agreement could become one in which the lease is capitalized–for example, if the lease term changes to greater than twelve months. (Expect to see plenty of leases terms of twelve months or less.)

ASC 842-10-30-1 defines the lease term as the noncancelable period of the lease together with all of the following:

  • Periods covered by an option to extend the lease if the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise that option
  • Periods covered by an option to terminate the lease if the lessee is reasonably certain not to exercise that option
  • Periods covered by an option to extend (or not to terminate) the lease in which exercise of the option is controlled by the lessor

Getting Ready for the New Lease Standard

Companies can ready themselves for implementation of the new lease standard by doing the following:

  1. Take an educational class that explains the particulars of the lease standard
  2. Create an inventory of all leases (I would use an Excel spreadsheet and create a worksheet summarizing financing leases and another worksheet for operating leases)
  3. Obtain copies of all lease agreements to support the inventory of leases (note–some verbal lease contracts are enforceable)
  4. Determine the terms of the leases (see ASC 842-10-30-1 above)
  5. Segregate the lease and non-lease (e.g., maintenance, cleaning) components in the lease contracts (companies can capitalize just the lease portion, though ASC 842-10-15-37 allows a lessee to make an election to not separate the non-lease component)
  6. Document judgments made such as whether the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise a renewal extension 
  7. Compute all lease liabilities and right-of-use asset amounts 
  8. Determine whether the implementation of the standard might adversely affect the company’s compliance with debt covenants (you may want to discuss the impact with your lenders)

While this list is not comprehensive, performing these actions will assist you in preparing for implementation of the lease standard.

Effective Dates for New Lease Standard

ASC 842 (ASU 2016-02), Leases, replaces ASC 840, Leases.

The effective dates for 842 are as follows:

For public entities, the standard is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2018.

ASC 842 is effective for the annual reporting periods of private companies and nonprofit organizations beginning after December 15, 2021.

Early implementation is permissible for all entities.

More Lease Information Coming

See How to Account for Finance and Operating Leases.

Cash flow statement errors
Dec 31

Three Steps to Correct Cash Flow Statement Errors

By Charles Hall | Accounting

Do you struggle with creating cash flow statements? Would you like to know how to correct cash flow statement errors? Below I explain how. We'll also discuss when you can omit cash flow statements and if it’s desirable or undesirable to do so. 

Cash flows are the lifeblood of any entity. Therefore, we must ensure the correctness of cash flow statements. For many small businesses, the auditor creates and audits this statement. So we need to make sure we do so correctly. 

Cash flow statement errors

Correcting Cash Flow Errors

Cash flow statement errors can be challenging, but, in many cases, there is a simple solution.

Example from My Office

This morning a staff member came to my office and said, "Something is out on my cash flow statement, and I don't know how to fix it. It has to do with PPP loan forgiveness of $280,000." (Most people know where the problem is, but they don't know how to correct the outage.)

So I told him what I've said to many over the years. "Imagine there are three physical buckets: operating, investing, financing. Then pretend the transaction in question is the only one of the year." Next, ask, "was cash received, and if yes, how much?" And finally, "in what bucket should I place the cash?" Mentally you are placing physical dollars in the three physical buckets even though cash is received electronically and physically.

Returning to my conversation with my staff member, I asked, "did the business receive any PPP money in the current year?" He said, "no, all came in the prior year." My next question was, "how much cash belongs to any of the three buckets in the current year?" And he said, "none." 

The PPP money was a cash inflow that went into the financing bucket in the prior year. In the current year, there is no cash, only forgiveness. It's a noncash transaction. Now, think about the journal entry to recognize the loan forgiveness: the company debited the loan payable and credited a revenue account. 

So if the company uses the indirect method in its cash flow statement, it begins with net income. We know $280,000 of PPP loan forgiveness is in net income. If we pretend that's the only transaction, then net income is $280,000. And how much cash was received in the current year? Yes, $0. So we know we need to subtract $280,000 from net income to get to $0 cash flows from operations. Just below net income, we'd include a line titled "PPP loan forgiveness," subtracting the PPP amount to arrive at $0. 

There's the answer to this problem, and this example explains how to correct cash flow statement errors. 

Isolate Cash Flow Problem

The mistake most people make in solving cash flow problems is trying to think about several different transactions simultaneously. Try to focus on one transaction at a time.   

The cash flows from investing and financing are usually easy to determine. Why? Because we reflect the actual cash inflows and outflows in those sections of the cash flow statement. Problems commonly arise in the operating area because of the indirect method (starting with net income and backing into cash flow from operations). When they do, see if you can determine the net change in each of the three buckets. You can back into the net change for operations if you know the net cash change and the net changes for investing and financing: subtract the net amounts for investing and financing from the net cash change. Then you can work from there to see why cash flow from operations is out (if that is the troublesome area).

Three Steps to Correct Cash Flow Statement Errors 

From there, use these three steps to correct cash flow statement errors:

  1. Pretend the transaction is the only transaction for the year
  2. Determine how much cash was received for that transaction, if any
  3. Determine whether the amount in question is operating, investing, or financing

Spreadsheet with Balance Sheet Changes

Of course, I also recommend you place the current year balance sheet with comparative prior period numbers in an Excel spreadsheet. That way, you can see the changes in the numbers. Identify the investing and financing changes such as the investment and debt balance sheet lines. The remaining balance sheet changes are operating lines. The cash change on the spreadsheet is your net cash change on the statement. 

Cash Flow Statement Importance

We, as auditors, pay less attention to cash flows than we should. We often focus on revenues, net income, or equity, but not cash flows. Why? I believe it's our training: our trainers tell us revenues, net income, and equity are most important. But if you were buying a business or loaning money to the company, would you pay attention to cash flows? Almost certainly. What if you were valuing the business? Would you pay attention to cash flows? Yes, again.

Cash flows from operations might be the most crucial number in the financial statements since it is the entity's lifeblood. Show me a business that generates no cash flow from operations, and I'll show you a company that will go under (in most cases). 

In evaluating going concern, the company and auditors review cash flows. After all, the going concern assessment is about whether a company can meet its ongoing obligations to pay its future bills. So cash flow information is crucial for companies with continuing losses or deficit equity positions. 

Financial statements sometimes don't contain a cash flow statement. But should they?

Omitting Cash Flow Statements

Omitting cash flow

It is permissible to omit the cash flow statement in a compilation--and most accountants do. True even for financial statements created under generally accepted accounting principles. (You may not omit the statement from audited or reviewed financial statements if GAAP is in use unless the auditor's report is modified.)

And special purpose financial statements such as tax-basis don't require a cash flow statement even if audited or reviewed. 

But is it wise to omit this statement? Maybe not. All businesses, even small ones, need to know how much cash is coming in or going out by category--not just net income. And I'm sure lenders appreciate cash flow information: that's how businesses pay loans.

Of course, the decision to include or omit the statement (when it's optional) for small businesses is a cost/benefit decision. Creating the cash flow statement requires an increase in the fee for compilations, for example. And the owners may not desire to pay the additional amount. 

Businesses usually don't need cash flow information for interim compilations, such as monthly financial statements. But the company owners or management might find value in annual cash flow statements. 

Cash Flow Information

Use the three steps listed above to hone in on cash flow statement outages. Hopefully, doing so will aid you in making corrections. And consider including cash flow statements in all financial statements, if desired by your client.    

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